1 // Rust-101, Part 05: Clone
2 // ========================
5 //@ In the course of the next few parts, we are going to build a data-structure for computations with
6 //@ *big* numbers. We would like to not have an upper bound to how large these numbers can get, with
7 //@ the memory of the machine being the only limit.
9 //@ We start by deciding how to represent such big numbers. One possibility here is
10 //@ to use a vector "digits" of the number. This is like "1337" being a vector of four digits (1, 3, 3, 7),
11 //@ except that we will use `u64` as type of our digits, meaning we have 2^64 individual digits. Now we just
12 //@ have to decide the order in which we store numbers. I decided that we will store the least significant
13 //@ digit first. This means that "1337" would actually become (7, 3, 3, 1). <br/>
14 //@ Finally, we declare that there must not be any trailing zeros (corresponding to
15 //@ useless leading zeros in our usual way of writing numbers). This is to ensure that
16 //@ the same number can only be stored in one way.
18 //@ To write this down in Rust, we use a `struct`, which is a lot like structs in C:
19 //@ Just a bunch of named fields. Every field can be private to the current module (which is the default),
20 //@ or public (which is indicated by a `pub` in front of the name). For the sake of the tutorial, we make
21 //@ `data` public - otherwise, the next parts of this course could not work on `BigInt`s. Of course, in a
22 //@ real program, one would make the field private to ensure that the invariant (no trailing zeros) is maintained.
24 pub data: Vec<u64>, // least significant digit first, no trailing zeros
27 // Now that we fixed the data representation, we can start implementing methods on it.
29 //@ Let's start with a constructor, creating a `BigInt` from an ordinary integer.
30 //@ To create an instance of a struct, we write its name followed by a list of
31 //@ fields and initial values assigned to them.
32 pub fn new(x: u64) -> Self {
34 BigInt { data: vec![] } /*@*/
36 BigInt { data: vec![x] } /*@*/
40 //@ It can often be useful to encode the invariant of a data-structure in code, so here
41 //@ is a check that detects useless trailing zeros.
42 pub fn test_invariant(&self) -> bool {
43 if self.data.len() == 0 {
46 self.data[self.data.len() - 1] != 0 /*@*/
50 // We can convert any vector of digits into a number, by removing trailing zeros. The `mut`
51 // declaration for `v` here is just like the one in `let mut ...`: We completely own `v`, but Rust
52 // still asks us to make our intention of modifying it explicit. This `mut` is *not* part of the
53 // type of `from_vec` - the caller has to give up ownership of `v` anyway, so they don't care anymore
56 // **Exercise 05.1**: Implement this function.
58 // *Hint*: You can use `pop` to remove the last element of a vector.
59 pub fn from_vec(mut v: Vec<u64>) -> Self {
65 //@ If you have a close look at the type of `BigInt::from_vec`, you will notice that it
66 //@ consumes the vector `v`. The caller hence loses access to its vector. There is however something
67 //@ we can do if we don't want that to happen: We can explicitly `clone` the vector,
68 //@ which means that a full (or *deep*) copy will be performed. Technically,
69 //@ `clone` takes a borrowed vector, and returns a fully owned one.
71 let v = vec![0,1 << 16];
72 let b1 = BigInt::from_vec((&v).clone());
73 let b2 = BigInt::from_vec(v);
75 //@ Rust has special treatment for methods that borrow its `self` argument (like `clone`, or
76 //@ like `test_invariant` above): It is not necessary to explicitly borrow the receiver of the
77 //@ method. Hence you could replace `(&v).clone()` by `v.clone()` above. Just try it!
79 //@ To be clonable is a property of a type, and as such, naturally expressed with a trait.
80 //@ In fact, Rust already comes with a trait `Clone` for exactly this purpose. We can hence
81 //@ make our `BigInt` clonable as well.
82 impl Clone for BigInt {
83 fn clone(&self) -> Self {
84 BigInt { data: self.data.clone() } /*@*/
87 //@ Making a type clonable is such a common exercise that Rust can even help you doing it:
88 //@ If you add `#[derive(Clone)]` right in front of the definition of `BigInt`, Rust will
89 //@ generate an implementation of `Clone` that simply clones all the fields. Try it!
90 //@ These `#[...]` annotations at types (and functions, modules, crates) are called *attributes*.
91 //@ We will see some more examples of attributes later.
93 // We can also make the type `SomethingOrNothing<T>` implement `Clone`.
94 //@ However, that can only work if `T` is `Clone`! So we have to add this bound to `T` when we introduce
95 //@ the type variable.
96 use part02::{SomethingOrNothing,Something,Nothing};
97 impl<T: Clone> Clone for SomethingOrNothing<T> {
98 fn clone(&self) -> Self {
100 Nothing => Nothing, /*@*/
101 //@ In the second arm of the match, we need to talk about the value `v`
102 //@ that's stored in `self`. However, if we would write the pattern as
103 //@ `Something(v)`, that would indicate that we *own* `v` in the code
104 //@ after the arrow. That can't work though, we have to leave `v` owned by
105 //@ whoever called us - after all, we don't even own `self`, we just borrowed it.
106 //@ By writing `Something(ref v)`, we borrow `v` for the duration of the match
107 //@ arm. That's good enough for cloning it.
108 Something(ref v) => Something(v.clone()), /*@*/
112 //@ Again, Rust will generate this implementation automatically if you add
113 //@ `#[derive(Clone)]` right before the definition of `SomethingOrNothing`.
115 // **Exercise 05.2**: Write some more functions on `BigInt`. What about a function that returns the number of
116 // digits? The number of non-zero digits? The smallest/largest digit? Of course, these should all just borrow `self`.
118 // ## Mutation + aliasing considered harmful (part 2)
119 //@ Now that we know how to borrow a part of an `enum` (like `v` above), there's another example for why we
120 //@ have to rule out mutation in the presence of aliasing. First, we define an `enum` that can hold either
121 //@ a number, or a string.
126 //@ Now consider the following piece of code. Like above, `n` will be a borrow of a part of `var`,
127 //@ and since we wrote `ref mut`, the borrow will be mutable. In other words, right after the match, `ptr`
128 //@ points to the number that's stored in `var`, where `var` is a `Number`. Remember that `_` means
130 fn work_on_variant(mut var: Variant, text: String) {
131 let mut ptr: &mut i32;
133 Variant::Number(ref mut n) => ptr = n,
134 Variant::Text(_) => return,
136 /* var = Variant::Text(text); */ /* BAD! */
139 //@ Now, imagine what would happen if we were permitted to also mutate `var`. We could, for example,
140 //@ make it a `Text`. However, `ptr` still points to the old location! Hence `ptr` now points somewhere
141 //@ into the representation of a `String`. By changing `ptr`, we manipulate the string in completely
142 //@ unpredictable ways, and anything could happen if we were to use it again! (Technically, the first field
143 //@ of a `String` is a pointer to its character data, so by overwriting that pointer with an integer,
144 //@ we make it a completely invalid address. When the destructor of `var` runs, it would try to deallocate
145 //@ that address, and Rust would eat your laundry - or whatever.)
147 //@ I hope this example clarifies why Rust has to rule out mutation in the presence of aliasing *in general*,
148 //@ not just for the specific case of a buffer being reallocated, and old pointers becoming hence invalid.
150 //@ [index](main.html) | [previous](part04.html) | [next](part06.html)