-// Rust-101, Part 14: Mutex, Sync (WIP)
-// ==============================
+// Rust-101, Part 14: Mutex, Interior Mutability, Sync
+// ===================================================
use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
use std::thread;
-//@ We already saw that we can use `Arc` to share memory between threads. However, `Arc` can only provide everybody
-//@ with *read-only* to memory: Since there is aliasing, Rust cannot, in general, permit mutation. If however,
+//@ We already saw that we can use `Arc` to share memory between threads. However, `Arc` can only provide *read-only*
+//@ access to memory: Since there is aliasing, Rust cannot, in general, permit mutation. If however,
//@ some care would be taken at run-time, then mutation would still be all right: We have to ensure that whenever
-//@ someone changes the data, nobody else is working on it. In other words, we need a *critical section* or (as it
+//@ someone changes the data, nobody else is looking at it. In other words, we need a *critical section* or (as it
//@ is called in Rust) a [`Mutex`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/sync/struct.Mutex.html). Some other languages also call this a *lock*.
//@
-//@ As an example, let us write a concurrent counter. As usual, we first have to think about our data-structure in Rust.
+//@ As an example, let us write a concurrent counter. As usual in Rust, we first have to think about our data layout.
//@ In case of the mutex, this means we have to declare the type of the data that we want to be protected. In Rust,
-//@ a `Mutex` protects data, not code. This is generally considered good style, but other languages typically lack
-//@ the ability to actually enforce this. As we will see, it is impossible to forget to acquire the mutex in Rust.
+//@ a `Mutex` protects data, not code - and it is impossible to access the data in any other way. This is generally considered
+//@ good style, but other languages typically lack the ability to actually enforce this.
//@ Of course, we want multiple threads to have access to this `Mutex`, so we wrap it in an `Arc`.
//@
//@ Rather than giving every field a name, a struct can also be defined by just giving a sequence of types (similar
struct ConcurrentCounter(Arc<Mutex<usize>>);
impl ConcurrentCounter {
- // The constructor should not be surprising.
+ // The constructor just wraps the constructors of `Arc` and `Mutex`.
pub fn new(val: usize) -> Self {
- ConcurrentCounter(Arc::new(Mutex::new(val)))
+ ConcurrentCounter(Arc::new(Mutex::new(val))) /*@*/
}
//@ The core operation is, of course, `increment`. The type may be surprising at first: A shared borrow?
//@ borrow is called *interior mutability*: We are changing the inner parts of the object, but seen from the outside,
//@ this does not count as "mutation". This stands in contrast to *exterior mutability*, which is the kind of
//@ mutability we saw so far, where one piece of data is replaced by something else of the same type. If you are familiar
- //@ with languages like ML, you can compare this to how something of type `ref` permit mutation, even though it is
+ //@ with languages like ML, you can compare this to how something of type `ref` permits mutation, even though it is
//@ itself a functional value (more precisely, a location) like all the others.
//@
//@ Interior mutability breaks the rules of Rust that I outlined earlier: There is aliasing (a shared borrow) and mutation.
// `lock` on a mutex returns a *guard*, giving access to the data contained in the mutex.
//@ (We will discuss the `unwrap` soon.) `.0` is how we access the first component of a tuple or a struct.
let mut counter = self.0.lock().unwrap();
+ //@ The guard is another example of a smart pointer, and it can be used as if it were a pointer to the data protected
+ //@ by the lock.
*counter = *counter + by;
//@ At the end of the function, `counter` is dropped and the mutex is available again.
//@ This can only happen when full ownership of the guard is given up. In particular, it is impossible for us
//@ about data races *even though* we are mutating shared memory!
//@
//@ One of the subtle aspects of locking is *poisoning*. If a thread panics while it holds a lock, it could leave the
- //@ data-structure in a bad state. The lock is hence considered *poisoned*. Future attempts to `lock` it will thus fail.
+ //@ data-structure in a bad state. The lock is hence considered *poisoned*. Future attempts to `lock` it will fail.
//@ Above, we simply assert via `unwrap` that this will never happen. Alternatively, we could have a look at the poisoned
//@ state and attempt to recover from it.
}
+ // The function `get` returns the current value of the counter.
pub fn get(&self) -> usize {
- let counter = self.0.lock().unwrap();
- *counter
+ let counter = self.0.lock().unwrap(); /*@*/
+ *counter /*@*/
}
}
}
});
- // Now we want to watch the threads working on the counter.
+ // Now we watch the threads working on the counter.
for _ in 0..50 {
thread::sleep_ms(5);
println!("Current value: {}", counter.get());
}
- // Finally, wait for all the threads to finish to be sure we can catch the counter's final value.
+ // Finally, we wait for all the threads to finish to be sure we can catch the counter's final value.
handle1.join().unwrap();
handle2.join().unwrap();
println!("Final value: {}", counter.get());
// provides two ways of locking: One that grants only read-only access, to any number of concurrent readers, and another one
// for exclusive write access. (Notice that this is the same pattern we already saw with shared vs. mutable borrows.) Change
// the code above to use `RwLock`, such that multiple calls to `get` can be executed at the same time.
+//
+// **Exercise 14.2**: Add an operation `compare_and_inc(&self, test: usize, by: usize)` that increments the counter by
+// `by` *only if* the current value is `test`.
//@ ## Sync
//@ In part 12, we talked about types that are marked `Send` and thus can be moved to another thread. However, we did *not*
//@ talk about the question whether a borrow is `Send`. For `&mut T`, the answer is: It is `Send` whenever `T` is send.
//@ `&mut` allows moving values back and forth, it is even possible to [`swap`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/beta/std/mem/fn.swap.html)
//@ the contents of two mutably borrowed values. So in terms of concurrency, sending a mutable borrow is very much like
-//@ sending full ownership.
+//@ sending full ownership, in the sense that it can be used to move the object to another thread.
//@
//@ But what about `&T`, a shared borrow? Without interior mutability, it would always be all-right to send such values.
-//@ After one, no mutation can be performed, so there can be as many threads accessing the data as we like. In the
+//@ After all, no mutation can be performed, so there can be as many threads accessing the data as we like. In the
//@ presence of interior mutability though, the story gets more complicated. Rust introduces another marker trait for
//@ this purpose: `Sync`. A type `T` is `Sync` if `&T` is `Send`. Just like `Send`, `Sync` has a default implementation
//@ and is thus automatically implemented for a data-structure *if* all its members implement it.
//@ is to enforce synchronization, so it should not be entirely surprising that `Mutex<T>` is `Send` *and* `Sync` provided that
//@ `T` is `Send`.
//@
-//@ There's also an example of a type that's `Send`, but not `Sync`: [`RefCell`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/beta/std/cell/struct.RefCell.html).
-//@ This type is very much like `RwLock`, but it's not thread-safe: "Locking" is done without atomic operations.
-//@ One can also see it as a dynamically checked version of Rust's usual borrowing rules. You have to explicitly say
-//@ when you want to borrow the data in there shared, or mutably, and Rust will complain at run-time if you have
-//@ a mutable borrow while any other borrow is active. You can then write programs that Rust may otherwise not
-//@ accept. Sending a shared borrow to this to another thread is dangerous, as the checks are not performed in
-//@ a thread-safe manner. However, sending the *entire* `RefCell` is okay, because there's only ever one owner, and all
-//@ we need to ensure is that everybody attempting to borrow is in the same thread as the owner.
+//@ In the next part, we will learn about a type called `RefCell` that is `Send`, but not `Sync`.
//@
//@ You may be curious whether there is a type that's `Sync`, but not `Send`. There are indeed rather esoteric examples
//@ of such types, but that's not a topic I want to go into. In case you are curious, there's a
--- /dev/null
+// Rust-101, Part 15: Interior Mutability (cont.), RefCell, Cell, Drop
+// ===================================================================
+
+//@ [`RefCell`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/beta/std/cell/struct.RefCell.html)
+//@ [`is very much like `RwLock`, but it's not thread-safe: "Locking" is done without atomic operations.
+//@ One can also see it as a dynamically checked version of Rust's usual borrowing rules. You have to explicitly say
+//@ when you want to borrow the data in there shared, or mutably, and Rust will complain at run-time if you have
+//@ a mutable borrow while any other borrow is active. You can then write programs that Rust may otherwise not
+//@ accept. Sending a shared borrow to this to another thread is dangerous, as the checks are not performed in
+//@ a thread-safe manner. However, sending the *entire* `RefCell` is okay, because there's only ever one owner, and all
+//@ we need to ensure is that everybody attempting to borrow is in the same thread as the owner. <br/>
+//@ [`Cell<T>`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/beta/std/cell/struct.Cell.html) is like a stripped-down version of `RefCell<T>`: It doesn't allow
+//@ you to borrow its content. Instead, it has a methods `get` and `set` to change the value stored in the cell, and to copy it out.
+//@ For obvious reasons, this requires `T` to be `Copy`.
+//@
+//@ You can also think about all these types coming from the other end: Starting with `Cell`, we have a primitive for
+//@ interior mutability that provides `get` and `set`, both just requiring a shared borrow. Think of these functions as
+//@ mutating the *content* of the cell, but not the cell itself, the container. (Just like in ML, where assignment to a
+//@ `ref` changes the content, not the location.) However, due to the ownership discipline, `Cell` only works for types
+//@ that are `Copy`. Hence we also have `RefCell`, which allows working with the data right in the cell, rather than
+//@ having to copy it out. `RefCell` uses non-atomic operations for this purpose, so for the multi-threaded setting, there's
+//@ the thread-safe `RwLock`. And finally, in case a distinction between readers and writers is not helpful, one can use the
+//@ more efficient `Mutex`.
+
+//@ [index](main.html) | [previous](part14.html) | [next](main.html)
-// Rust-101, Part 14: Mutex, Sync (WIP)
-// ==============================
+// Rust-101, Part 14: Mutex, Interior Mutability, Sync
+// ===================================================
use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex};
use std::thread;
struct ConcurrentCounter(Arc<Mutex<usize>>);
impl ConcurrentCounter {
- // The constructor should not be surprising.
+ // The constructor just wraps the constructors of `Arc` and `Mutex`.
pub fn new(val: usize) -> Self {
- ConcurrentCounter(Arc::new(Mutex::new(val)))
+ unimplemented!()
}
pub fn increment(&self, by: usize) {
*counter = *counter + by;
}
+ // The function `get` returns the current value of the counter.
pub fn get(&self) -> usize {
- let counter = self.0.lock().unwrap();
- *counter
+ unimplemented!()
}
}
}
});
- // Now we want to watch the threads working on the counter.
+ // Now we watch the threads working on the counter.
for _ in 0..50 {
thread::sleep_ms(5);
println!("Current value: {}", counter.get());
}
- // Finally, wait for all the threads to finish to be sure we can catch the counter's final value.
+ // Finally, we wait for all the threads to finish to be sure we can catch the counter's final value.
handle1.join().unwrap();
handle2.join().unwrap();
println!("Final value: {}", counter.get());
// provides two ways of locking: One that grants only read-only access, to any number of concurrent readers, and another one
// for exclusive write access. (Notice that this is the same pattern we already saw with shared vs. mutable borrows.) Change
// the code above to use `RwLock`, such that multiple calls to `get` can be executed at the same time.
+//
+// **Exercise 14.2**: Add an operation `compare_and_inc(&self, test: usize, by: usize)` that increments the counter by
+// `by` *only if* the current value is `test`.
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