-impl ops::Add<BigInt> for BigInt {
- type Output = BigInt;
- fn add(self, rhs: BigInt) -> Self::Output {
- let mut result_vec:Vec<u64> = Vec::with_capacity(cmp::max(self.data.len(), rhs.data.len()));
- let mut carry:bool = false; // the carry bit
- for (i, val) in self.data.into_iter().enumerate() {
- // compute next digit and carry
- let rhs_val = if i < rhs.data.len() { rhs.data[i] } else { 0 };
- let (sum, new_carry) = overflowing_add(val, rhs_val, carry);
- // store them
- result_vec.push(sum);
- carry = new_carry;
- }
- BigInt { data: result_vec }
+//@ But before we go there, I should answer the second question I brought up above: Why did our old
+//@ `vec_min` work? We stored the minimal `i32` locally without cloning, and Rust did not complain.
+//@ That's because there isn't really much of an "ownership" when it comes to types like `i32` or
+//@ `bool`: If you move the value from one place to another, then both instances are "complete". We
+//@ also say the value has been *duplicated*. This is in stark contrast to types like `Vec<i32>`,
+//@ where moving the value results in both the old and the new vector to point to the same
+//@ underlying buffer. We don't have two vectors, there's no proper duplication.
+//@
+//@ Rust calls types that can be easily duplicated `Copy` types. `Copy` is another trait, and it is
+//@ implemented for types like `i32` and `bool`. Remember how we defined the trait `Minimum` by
+//@ writing `trait Minimum : Copy { ...`? This tells Rust that every type that implements `Minimum`
+//@ must also implement `Copy`, and that's why the compiler accepted our generic `vec_min` in part
+//@ 02. `Copy` is the first *marker trait* that we encounter: It does not provide any methods, but
+//@ makes a promise about the behavior of the type - in this case, being duplicable.
+//@ If you try to implement `Copy` for `BigInt`, you will notice that Rust does not let you do
+//@ that. A type can only be `Copy` if all its elements are `Copy`, and that's not the case for
+//@ `BigInt`. However, we can make `SomethingOrNothing<T>` copy if `T` is `Copy`.
+use part02::{SomethingOrNothing,Something,Nothing};
+impl<T: Copy> Copy for SomethingOrNothing<T> {}
+//@ Again, Rust can generate implementations of `Copy` automatically. If
+//@ you add `#[derive(Copy,Clone)]` right before the definition of `SomethingOrNothing`,
+//@ both `Copy` and `Clone` will automatically be implemented.
+
+//@ ## An operational perspective
+//@ Instead of looking at what happens "at the surface" (i.e., visible in Rust), one can also explain
+//@ ownership passing and how `Copy` and `Clone` fit in by looking at what happens on the machine.
+//@ <br/>
+//@ When Rust code is executed, passing a value (like `i32` or `Vec<i32>`) to a function will always
+//@ result in a shallow copy being performed: Rust just copies the bytes representing that value, and
+//@ considers itself done. That's just like the default copy constructor in C++. Rust, however, will
+//@ consider this a destructive operation: After copying the bytes elsewhere, the original value must
+//@ no longer be used. After all, the two could now share a pointer! If, however, you mark a type
+//@ `Copy`, then Rust will *not* consider a move destructive, and just like in C++, the old and new
+//@ value can happily coexist. Now, Rust does not allow you to overload the copy constructor. This
+//@ means that passing a value around will always be a fast operation, no allocation or any other
+//@ kind of heap access will happen. In the situations where you would write a copy constructor in
+//@ C++ (and hence incur a hidden cost on every copy of this type), you'd have the type *not*
+//@ implement `Copy`, but only `Clone`. This makes the cost explicit.
+
+// ## Lifetimes
+//@ To fix the performance problems of `vec_min`, we need to avoid using `clone`. We'd like the
+//@ return value to not be owned (remember that this was the source of our need for cloning), but
+//@ *borrowed*. In other words, we want to return a shared reference to the minimal element.
+//@ The function `head` demonstrates how that could work: It returns a reference to the first
+//@ element of a vector if it is non-empty. The type of the function says that it will either
+//@ return nothing, or it will return a borrowed `T`. We can then obtain a reference to the first
+//@ element of `v` and use it to construct the return value.
+fn head<T>(v: &Vec<T>) -> Option<&T> {
+ if v.len() > 0 {
+ Some(&v[0]) /*@*/
+ } else {
+ None