---
-title: "Two Kinds of Invariants"
+title: "Two Kinds of Invariants: Safety and Validity"
categories: internship rust
forum: https://internals.rust-lang.org/t/two-kinds-of-invariants/8264
---
Based on that, it should not be hard to fill in the invariant for some more types.
For example, `&bool` is an aligned, non-NULL reference to allocated read-only memory (because safe code can dereference) such that the data stored in that memory is safe at `bool` (because safe code can work on that `bool` after dereferencing).
This kind of "structural recursion" is happening everywhere for safety invariants: `x` is safe for `(T, U)` if `x.0` is safe for `T` and `x.1` is safe for `U`.
-`x` is safe for `Option<T>` if either the discriminant is `None`, or it is `Some` and the data is safe for `T`.
+As far as enums is concerned, for example `x` is safe for `Option<T>` if either the discriminant is `None`, or it is `Some` and the data is safe for `T`.
+Similarly, `x` is never safe for `!` -- there just is no valid discriminant that `x` could have.
When we talk about integer types like `i32`, it is tempting to say that *all* data is safe at `i32`.
However, that does not actually work: As [I discussed in a previous post]({% post_url 2018-07-24-pointers-and-bytes %}), the "bytes" that make up data have more possible states than just `0..256`.
For reference types, some of the details are [harder to define]({% post_url 2018-04-05-a-formal-look-at-pinning %}), but we can still roughly say that a pointer is safe for `&'a mut T` if it is aligned, non-NULL and points to allocated memory that, for lifetime `'a`, no other pointer accesses, and such that the data stored in memory at that location is safe for `T`.
Similarly (and [ignoring interior mutability]({% post_url 2018-01-31-sharing-for-a-lifetime %})), a pointer is safe for `&'a T` if it is aligned, non-NULL and points to allocated memory that is not mutated for lifetime `'a` and such that the data stored in memory is safe for `T`. The safety of `&bool` that we discussed above is just an instance of this general definition.
+In particular, it is impossible to have a safe `&!` because it would have to point to a safe `!`, which does not exist.
The safety invariant gets particularly interesting for higher-order data like function pointers or trait objects.
For example, when is `f` safe at type `fn(bool) -> i32`?
This is an invariant that all the unsafe code implementing `Vec` maintains, and it is the invariant that the safe API surface of `Vec` expects the outside world to uphold.
The reason this works is that the fields mentioned in this invariant are all private, so safe code cannot break the invariant and use that broken invariant to cause havoc.
Again, the safety invariant is about ensuring safe execution of safe code.
-Unsafe code can of course break this invariant, but then it us just Doing It Wrong (TM).
+Unsafe code can of course break this invariant, but then it is just Doing It Wrong (TM).
Thanks to privacy and an abstraction barrier, types in Rust can define *their own safety invariant*, and they can then expect the outside world to respect that invariant.
As we have seen with `Vec`, when generic types are involved, these custom safety invariants will often have a "structural" element in that being safe at `Vec<T>` is defined in terms of being safe at `T`.
> *Unsafe code only has to uphold safety invariants at the boundaries to safe code.*
+Notice that the "boundary" is not necessarily where the `unsafe` block ends.
+The boundary occurs where the unsafe code provides a public API that safe code is intended to use -- that might be at the module boundary, or it might even be at the crate level.
+That is where safe code should be able to rely on safety, so that it can interact with the unsafe code without triggering undefined behavior, and hence that is where the safety invariants come into play.
+
This is in strong contrast to validity, which must *always* hold.
Layout optimizations and LLVM's attributes are in effect throughout unsafe code, so it is never okay to ever have invalid data.
+(With the sole restriction of data which *the compiler statically knows is not initialized*: If you write `let b: bool;`, that data in `b` is kept inaccessible *even to unsafe code*, and it does not have to satisfy any invariant. This works because the compiler knows about `b` not being initialized.)
> *Unsafe code must always uphold validity invariants.*
-So we clearly cannot just pick the same invariant for both.
+So we clearly cannot just pick the same invariant for both, or else it would be impossible to write `Vec`.
We *might* want to just ignore user-defined invariants when it comes to validity, but I think that would be ill-advised.
First of all, validity is part of the definition of undefined behavior.
For `bool`, we stick to the same invariant as for safety: It must be `true` or `false`.
This invariant is already exploited by enum layout optimizations, so violating it *at any time* can break your code.
More generally speaking, validity requires correct enum discriminants.
+One consequence of this is that no data is valid at `!`.
Similar to safety, validity is structural -- so validity for `(T, U)` requires that the first field is valid at `T`, and the second field is valid at `U`.
Doing all that with raw pointers is much less ergonomic, and making people write less ergonomic code will inadvertently lead to more bugs.
Moreover, the *benefits* of making this validity for reference structural (i.e., `&T` is valid only if it points to a valid `T`) seem slim (though @comex [came up with an optimization that would require this](https://internals.rust-lang.org/t/stacked-borrows-an-aliasing-model-for-rust/8153/25?u=ralfjung)).
+A consequence of this is would be that while `&!` does not have a safe inhabitant, it *is* possible to have data that is valid for `&!`.
+After all, it does not have to point to a valid `!` (which would be impossible).
+
One point that we *already* assume, however, is that references are dereferencable.
We even tell LLVM that this is the case.
It seems natural to make that part of validity.
I have talked about two kinds of invariants that come with every type, the safety invariant and the validity invariant.
For unsafe code authors, the slogan summarizing this post is:
-> *You must always be valid, but you must not always be safe.*
+> *You must always be valid, but you only must be safe in safe code.*
I think we have enough experience writing unsafe code at this point that we can reasonably discuss which validity invariants make sense and which do not -- and I think that it is high time that we do so, because many unsafe code authors are wondering about these exact things all the time.
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