X-Git-Url: https://git.ralfj.de/rust-101.git/blobdiff_plain/f5a79e8aaa07e56cf2dd8fe8438d96624dd84fbc..8592458fd3494ebce80727341663c7b0036e3ede:/src/part07.rs?ds=sidebyside diff --git a/src/part07.rs b/src/part07.rs index 8fad5a8..b04d766 100644 --- a/src/part07.rs +++ b/src/part07.rs @@ -1,19 +1,19 @@ -// Rust-101, Part 07: Operator Overloading, Tests, Output -// ====================================================== +// Rust-101, Part 07: Operator Overloading, Tests, Formatting +// ========================================================== pub use part05::BigInt; -// With our new knowledge of lifetimes, we are now able to write down the desired type -// of `min`: We want the function to take two borrows *of the same lifetime*, and then -// return a borrow of that lifetime. If the two input lifetimes would be different, we -// would not know which lifetime to use for the result. +// With our new knowledge of lifetimes, we are now able to write down the desired type of `min`: +//@ We want the function to take two references *with the same lifetime*, and then +//@ return a reference with that lifetime. If the two input lifetimes would be different, we +//@ would not know which lifetime to use for the result. pub trait Minimum { fn min<'a>(&'a self, other: &'a Self) -> &'a Self; } -// Now we can implement a generic function `vec_min` that works on above trait. -// The code is pretty much straight-forward, and Rust checks that all the -// lifetimes actually work out. +//@ Now we can implement a generic function `vec_min` that works on above trait. +//@ The code is pretty much straight-forward, and Rust checks that all the +//@ lifetimes actually work out. Observe that we don't have to make any copies! pub fn vec_min(v: &Vec) -> Option<&T> { let mut min: Option<&T> = None; for e in v { @@ -24,19 +24,19 @@ pub fn vec_min(v: &Vec) -> Option<&T> { } min } -// Notice that the return type `Option<&T>` is technically (leaving the borrowing story aside) a -// pointer to a `T`, that could optionally be invalid. In other words, it's just like a pointer in -// C(++) or Java that can be `NULL`! However, thanks to `Option` being an `enum`, we cannot forget -// to check the pointer for validity, avoiding the safety issues of C(++). At the same time, when we -// have a borrow like `v` above that's not an `Option`, we *know* that is has to be a valid -// pointer, so we don't even need to do the `NULL`-check that Java does all the time.
-// Also, if you are worried about wasting space, notice that Rust knows that `&T` can never be -// `NULL`, and hence optimizes `Option<&T>` to be no larger than `&T`. The `None` case is represented -// as `NULL`. This is another great example of a zero-cost abstraction: `Option<&T>` is exactly like -// a pointer in C(++), if you look at what happens during execution - but it's much safer to use. - -// For our `vec_min` to be usable with `BigInt`, we need to provide an implementation of -// `Minimum`. You should be able to pretty much copy the code you wrote for exercise 06.1. +//@ Notice that the return type `Option<&T>` is technically (leaving the borrowing story aside) a +//@ pointer to a `T`, that could optionally be invalid. In other words, it's just like a pointer in +//@ C(++) or Java that can be `NULL`! However, thanks to `Option` being an `enum`, we cannot forget +//@ to check the pointer for validity, avoiding the safety issues of C(++).
+//@ Also, if you are worried about wasting space, notice that Rust knows that `&T` can never be +//@ `NULL`, and hence optimizes `Option<&T>` to be no larger than `&T`. The `None` case is +//@ represented as `NULL`. This is another great example of a zero-cost abstraction: `Option<&T>` +//@ is exactly like a pointer in C(++), if you look at what happens during execution - but it's +//@ much safer to use. + +// **Exercise 07.1**: For our `vec_min` to be usable with `BigInt`, you will have to provide an +// implementation of `Minimum`. You should be able to pretty much copy the code you wrote for +// exercise 06.1. You should *not* make any copies of `BigInt`! impl Minimum for BigInt { fn min<'a>(&'a self, other: &'a Self) -> &'a Self { unimplemented!() @@ -44,37 +44,55 @@ impl Minimum for BigInt { } // ## Operator Overloading -// How can we know that our `min` function actually does what we want it to do? One possibility -// here is to do *testing*. Rust comes with nice build-in support for both unit tests and integration -// tests. However, before we go there, we need to have a way of checking whether the results of function calls are -// correct. In other words, we need to define how to test equality of `BigInt`. Being able to -// test equality is a property of a type, that - you guessed it - Rust expresses as a trait: `PartialEq`. - -// Doing this for `BigInt` is fairly easy, thanks to our requirement that there be no trailing zeros. -// The `inline` attribute tells Rust that we will typically want this function to be inlined. +//@ How can we know that our `min` function actually does what we want it to do? One possibility +//@ here is to do *testing*. Rust comes with nice built-in support for both unit tests and +//@ integration tests. However, before we go there, we need to have a way of checking whether the +//@ results of function calls are correct. In other words, we need to define how to test equality +//@ of `BigInt`. Being able to test equality is a property of a type, that - you guessed it - Rust +//@ expresses as a trait: `PartialEq`. + +//@ Doing this for `BigInt` is fairly easy, thanks to our requirement that there be no trailing +//@ zeros. We simply re-use the equality test on vectors, which compares all the elements +//@ individually. +//@ The `inline` attribute tells Rust that we will typically want this function to be inlined. impl PartialEq for BigInt { #[inline] fn eq(&self, other: &BigInt) -> bool { debug_assert!(self.test_invariant() && other.test_invariant()); - self.data == other.data + self.data == other.data /*@*/ } } -// Since implementing `PartialEq` is a fairly mechanical business, you can let Rust automate this -// by adding the attribute `derive(PartialEq)` to the type definition. In case you wonder about -// the "partial", I suggest you check out the documentation of [`PartialEq`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cmp/trait.PartialEq.html) -// and [`Eq`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cmp/trait.Eq.html). `Eq` can be automatically derived as well. - -// Now we can compare `BigInt`s using `==`! Speaking in C++ terms, we just overloaded the `==` operator -// for `BigInt`. Rust does not have function overloading (i.e., it will not dispatch to different -// functions depending on the type of the argument). Instead, one typically finds (or defines) a -// trait that catches the core characteristic common to all the overloads, and writes a single -// function that's generic in the trait. For example, instead of overloading a function for all -// the ways a string can be represented, one writes a generic functions over [ToString](http://doc.rust-lang.org/std/string/trait.ToString.html). -// Usually, there is a trait like this that fits the purpose - and if there is, this has the great -// advantage that any type *you* write, that can convert to a string, just has to implement -// that trait to be immediately usable with all the functions out there that generalize over `ToString`. -// Compare that to C++ or Java, where the only chance to add a new overloading variant is to -// edit the class of the receiver. + +//@ Since implementing `PartialEq` is a fairly mechanical business, you can let Rust automate this +//@ by adding the attribute `derive(PartialEq)` to the type definition. In case you wonder about +//@ the "partial", I suggest you check out the documentation of +//@ [`PartialEq`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cmp/trait.PartialEq.html) and +//@ [`Eq`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/cmp/trait.Eq.html). `Eq` can be automatically derived as +//@ well. + +// Now we can compare `BigInt`s. Rust treats `PartialEq` special in that it is wired to the operator +// `==`: +//@ That operator can now be used on our numbers! Speaking in C++ terms, we just overloaded the +//@ `==` operator for `BigInt`. Rust does not have function overloading (i.e., it will not dispatch +//@ to different functions depending on the type of the argument). Instead, one typically finds (or +//@ defines) a trait that catches the core characteristic common to all the overloads, and writes a +//@ single function that's generic in the trait. For example, instead of overloading a function for +//@ all the ways a string can be represented, one writes a generic functions over +//@ [ToString](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/string/trait.ToString.html). +//@ Usually, there is a trait like this that fits the purpose - and if there is, this has the great +//@ advantage that any type *you* write, that can convert to a string, just has to implement +//@ that trait to be immediately usable with all the functions out there that generalize over +//@ `ToString`. +//@ Compare that to C++ or Java, where the only chance to add a new overloading variant is to +//@ edit the class of the receiver. +//@ +//@ Why can we also use `!=`, even though we just overloaded `==`? The answer lies in what's called +//@ a *default implementation*. If you check out the documentation of `PartialEq` I linked above, +//@ you will see that the trait actually provides two methods: `eq` to test equality, and `ne` to +//@ test inequality. As you may have guessed, `!=` is wired to `ne`. The trait *definition* also +//@ provides a default implementation of `ne` to be the negation of `eq`. Hence you can just +//@ provide `eq`, and `!=` will work fine. Or, if you have a more efficient way of deciding +//@ inequality, you can provide `ne` for your type yourself. fn compare_big_ints() { let b1 = BigInt::new(13); let b2 = BigInt::new(37); @@ -82,43 +100,45 @@ fn compare_big_ints() { } // ## Testing -// With our equality test written, we are now ready to write our first testcase. It doesn't get much -// simpler: You just write a function (with no arguments or return value), and give it the `test` attribute. -// `assert!` is like `debug_assert!`, but does not get compiled away in a release build. +// With our equality test written, we are now ready to write our first testcase. +//@ It doesn't get much simpler: You just write a function (with no arguments or return value), +//@ and give it the `test` attribute. `assert!` is like `debug_assert!`, but does not get compiled +//@ away in a release build. #[test] fn test_min() { let b1 = BigInt::new(1); let b2 = BigInt::new(42); let b3 = BigInt::from_vec(vec![0, 1]); - assert!(*b1.min(&b2) == b1); - assert!(*b3.min(&b2) == b2); + assert!(*b1.min(&b2) == b1); /*@*/ + assert!(*b3.min(&b2) == b2); /*@*/ } // Now run `cargo test` to execute the test. If you implemented `min` correctly, it should all work! // ## Formatting -// There is also a macro `assert_eq!` that's specialized to test for equality, and that prints the two -// values (left and right) if they differ. To be able to do that, the macro needs to know how to format -// the value for printing. This means that we - guess what? - have to implement an appropriate trait. -// Rust knows about two ways of formatting a value: `Display` is for pretty-printing something in a way -// that users can understand, while `Debug` is meant to show the internal state of data and targeted at -// the programmer. The latter is what we want for `assert_eq!`, so let's get started. - -// All formating is handled by [`std::fmt`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/std/fmt/index.html). I won't explain -// all the details, and refer you to the documentation instead. +//@ There is also a macro `assert_eq!` that's specialized to test for equality, and that prints the +//@ two values (left and right) if they differ. To be able to do that, the macro needs to know how +//@ to format the value for printing. This means that we - guess what? - have to implement an +//@ appropriate trait. Rust knows about two ways of formatting a value: `Display` is for pretty- +//@ printing something in a way that users can understand, while `Debug` is meant to show the +//@ internal state of data and targeted at the programmer. The latter is what we want for +//@ `assert_eq!`, so let's get started. + +// All formating is handled by [`std::fmt`](https://doc.rust-lang.org/std/fmt/index.html). I won't +// explain all the details, and refer you to the documentation instead. use std::fmt; -// In the case of `BigInt`, we'd like to just output our internal `data` array, so we -// simply call the formating function of `Vec`. +//@ In the case of `BigInt`, we'd like to just output our internal `data` array, so we +//@ simply call the formating function of `Vec`. impl fmt::Debug for BigInt { fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) -> fmt::Result { self.data.fmt(f) } } -// `Debug` implementations can be automatically generated using the `derive(Debug)` attribute. +//@ `Debug` implementations can be automatically generated using the `derive(Debug)` attribute. // Now we are ready to use `assert_eq!` to test `vec_min`. -#[test] +/*#[test]*/ fn test_vec_min() { let b1 = BigInt::new(1); let b2 = BigInt::new(42); @@ -126,15 +146,18 @@ fn test_vec_min() { let v1 = vec![b2.clone(), b1.clone(), b3.clone()]; let v2 = vec![b2.clone(), b3.clone()]; - assert_eq!(vec_min(&v1), Some(&b1)); - assert_eq!(vec_min(&v2), Some(&b2)); + assert_eq!(vec_min(&v1), Some(&b1)); /*@*/ + assert_eq!(vec_min(&v2), Some(&b2)); /*@*/ } // **Exercise 07.1**: Add some more testcases. In particular, make sure you test the behavior of // `vec_min` on an empty vector. Also add tests for `BigInt::from_vec` (in particular, removing // trailing zeros). Finally, break one of your functions in a subtle way and watch the test fail. -// -// **Exercise 07.2**: Go back to your good ol' `SomethingOrNothing`, and implement `Display` for it. (This will, -// of course, need a `Display` bound on `T`.) Then you should be able to use them with `println!` just like you do with numbers. -// [index](main.html) | [previous](part06.html) | [next](main.html) +// **Exercise 07.2**: Go back to your good ol' `SomethingOrNothing`, and implement `Display` for it. +// (This will, of course, need a `Display` bound on `T`.) Then you should be able to use them with +// `println!` just like you do with numbers, and get rid of the inherent functions to print +// `SomethingOrNothing` and `SomethingOrNothing`. + +//@ [index](main.html) | [previous](part06.html) | [raw source](workspace/src/part07.rs) | +//@ [next](part08.html)