X-Git-Url: https://git.ralfj.de/rust-101.git/blobdiff_plain/4f61be32dd480f23a7fef05ee66c42ae27c980c6..bfcb8f515cc956fca8d44e76d2ecb33d3de591fe:/src/part06.rs diff --git a/src/part06.rs b/src/part06.rs index 00a2bde..7113094 100644 --- a/src/part06.rs +++ b/src/part06.rs @@ -25,12 +25,12 @@ impl BigInt { } } -// Now we can write `vec_min`. However, in order to make it type-check, we have to make a full (deep) copy of e -// by calling `clone()`. +// Now we can write `vec_min`. fn vec_min(v: &Vec) -> Option { let mut min: Option = None; + // If `v` is a shared reference to a vector, then the default for iterating over it is to call `iter`, the iterator that borrows the elements. for e in v { - let e = e.clone(); /*@*/ + let e = e.clone(); min = Some(match min { /*@*/ None => e, /*@*/ Some(n) => e.min_try1(n) /*@*/ @@ -38,19 +38,19 @@ fn vec_min(v: &Vec) -> Option { } min } -//@ Now, what's happening here? Why do we have to clone `e`, and why did we not +//@ Now, what's happening here? Why do we have to to make a full (deep) copy of `e`, and why did we not //@ have to do that in our previous version? //@ //@ The answer is already hidden in the type of `vec_min`: `v` is just borrowed, but //@ the Option that it returns is *owned*. We can't just return one of the elements of `v`, //@ as that would mean that it is no longer in the vector! In our code, this comes up when we update -//@ the intermediate variable `min`, which also has type `Option`. If you replace get rid of the +//@ the intermediate variable `min`, which also has type `Option`. If you get rid of the //@ `e.clone()`, Rust will complain "Cannot move out of borrowed content". That's because //@ `e` is a `&BigInt`. Assigning `min = Some(*e)` works just like a function call: Ownership of the -//@ underlying data is transferred from where `e` borrows from to `min`. But that's not allowed, since -//@ we just borrowed `e`, so we cannot empty it! We can, however, call `clone()` on it. Then we own -//@ the copy that was created, and hence we can store it in `min`.
-//@ Of course, making such a full copy is expensive, so we'd like to avoid it. We'll some to that in the next part. +//@ underlying data is transferred from `e` to `min`. But that's not allowed, since +//@ we just borrowed `e`, so we cannot empty it! We can, however, call `clone` on it. Then we own +//@ the copy that was created, and hence we can store it in `min`.
+//@ Of course, making such a full copy is expensive, so we'd like to avoid it. We'll come to that in the next part. // ## `Copy` types //@ But before we go there, I should answer the second question I brought up above: Why did our old `vec_min` work? @@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ impl Copy for SomethingOrNothing {} //@ ## An operational perspective //@ Instead of looking at what happens "at the surface" (i.e., visible in Rust), one can also explain -//@ ownership passing and how `Copy` and `Clone` fit in by looking at what happens on the machine.
+//@ ownership passing and how `Copy` and `Clone` fit in by looking at what happens on the machine.
//@ When Rust code is executed, passing a value (like `i32` or `Vec`) to a function will always //@ result in a shallow copy being performed: Rust just copies the bytes representing that value, and //@ considers itself done. That's just like the default copy constructor in C++. Rust, however, will @@ -92,12 +92,13 @@ impl Copy for SomethingOrNothing {} //@ `Clone`. This makes the cost explicit. // ## Lifetimes -//@ To fix the performance problems of `vec_min`, we need to avoid using `clone()`. We'd like +//@ To fix the performance problems of `vec_min`, we need to avoid using `clone`. We'd like //@ the return value to not be owned (remember that this was the source of our need for cloning), but *borrowed*. +//@ In other words, we want to return a shared reference to the minimal element. -//@ The function `head` demonstrates how that could work: It borrows the first element of a vector if it is non-empty. +//@ The function `head` demonstrates how that could work: It returns a reference to the first element of a vector if it is non-empty. //@ The type of the function says that it will either return nothing, or it will return a borrowed `T`. -//@ We can then borrow the first element of `v` and use it to construct the return value. +//@ We can then obtain a reference to the first element of `v` and use it to construct the return value. fn head(v: &Vec) -> Option<&T> { if v.len() > 0 { Some(&v[0]) /*@*/ @@ -126,25 +127,25 @@ fn rust_foo(mut v: Vec) -> i32 { *first.unwrap() } -//@ To give the answer to this question, we have to talk about the *lifetime* of a borrow. The point is, saying that +//@ To give the answer to this question, we have to talk about the *lifetime* of a reference. The point is, saying that //@ you borrowed your friend a `Vec`, or a book, is not good enough, unless you also agree on *how long* //@ your friend can borrow it. After all, you need to know when you can rely on owning your data (or book) again. //@ -//@ Every borrow in Rust has an associated lifetime, written `&'a T` for a borrow of type `T` with lifetime `'a`. The full +//@ Every reference in Rust has an associated lifetime, written `&'a T` for a reference with lifetime `'a` to something of type `T`. The full //@ type of `head` reads as follows: `fn<'a, T>(&'a Vec) -> Option<&'a T>`. Here, `'a` is a *lifetime variable*, which -//@ represents how long the vector has been borrowed. The function type expresses that argument and return value have *the same lifetime*. +//@ represents for how long the vector has been borrowed. The function type expresses that argument and return value have *the same lifetime*. //@ //@ When analyzing the code of `rust_foo`, Rust has to assign a lifetime to `first`. It will choose the scope //@ where `first` is valid, which is the entire rest of the function. Because `head` ties the lifetime of its //@ argument and return value together, this means that `&v` also has to borrow `v` for the entire duration of -//@ the function. So when we try to borrow `v` mutable for `push`, Rust complains that the two borrows (the one -//@ for `head`, and the one for `push`) overlap. Lucky us! Rust caught our mistake and made sure we don't crash the program. +//@ the function `rust_foo`. So when we try to create a unique reference to `v` for `push`, Rust complains that the two references (the one +//@ for `head`, and the one for `push`) overlap, so neither of them can be unique. Lucky us! Rust caught our mistake and made sure we don't crash the program. //@ -//@ So, to sum this up: Lifetimes enable Rust to reason about *how long* a pointer has been borrowed. We can thus -//@ safely write functions like `head`, that return pointers into data they got as argument, and make sure they +//@ So, to sum this up: Lifetimes enable Rust to reason about *how long* a reference is valid, how long ownership has been borrowed. We can thus +//@ safely write functions like `head`, that return references into data they got as argument, and make sure they //@ are used correctly, *while looking only at the function type*. At no point in our analysis of `rust_foo` did //@ we have to look *into* `head`. That's, of course, crucial if we want to separate library code from application code. -//@ Most of the time, we don't have to explicitly add lifetimes to function types. This is thanks to *lifetimes elision*, -//@ where Rust will automatically insert lifetimes we did not specify, following some [simple, well-documented rules](http://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/lifetimes.html#lifetime-elision). +//@ Most of the time, we don't have to explicitly add lifetimes to function types. This is thanks to *lifetime elision*, +//@ where Rust will automatically insert lifetimes we did not specify, following some [simple, well-documented rules](https://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/book/lifetimes.html#lifetime-elision). -//@ [index](main.html) | [previous](part05.html) | [next](part07.html) +//@ [index](main.html) | [previous](part05.html) | [raw source](workspace/src/part06.rs) | [next](part07.html)