X-Git-Url: https://git.ralfj.de/rust-101.git/blobdiff_plain/0223210576f27d0743c2d12b890d30f5c2ef6b2d..4cac8138d63e49c60d101bee79b9e60644b3de0a:/src/part14.rs?ds=inline diff --git a/src/part14.rs b/src/part14.rs index 596094b..059d1b5 100644 --- a/src/part14.rs +++ b/src/part14.rs @@ -1,142 +1,192 @@ -// Rust-101, Part 14: Mutex, Interior Mutability, Sync -// =================================================== +// Rust-101, Part 14: Slices, Arrays, External Dependencies +// ======================================================== -use std::sync::{Arc, Mutex}; -use std::thread; +//@ To complete rgrep, there are two pieces we still need to implement: Sorting, and taking the job +//@ options as argument to the program, rather than hard-coding them. Let's start with sorting. -//@ We already saw that we can use `Arc` to share memory between threads. However, `Arc` can only provide *read-only* -//@ access to memory: Since there is aliasing, Rust cannot, in general, permit mutation. If however, -//@ some care would be taken at run-time, then mutation would still be all right: We have to ensure that whenever -//@ someone changes the data, nobody else is looking at it. In other words, we need a *critical section* or (as it -//@ is called in Rust) a [`Mutex`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/sync/struct.Mutex.html). Some other languages also call this a *lock*. -//@ -//@ As an example, let us write a concurrent counter. As usual in Rust, we first have to think about our data layout. -//@ In case of the mutex, this means we have to declare the type of the data that we want to be protected. In Rust, -//@ a `Mutex` protects data, not code - and it is impossible to access the data in any other way. This is generally considered -//@ good style, but other languages typically lack the ability to actually enforce this. -//@ Of course, we want multiple threads to have access to this `Mutex`, so we wrap it in an `Arc`. -//@ -//@ Rather than giving every field a name, a struct can also be defined by just giving a sequence of types (similar -//@ to how a variant of an `enum` is defined). This is called a *tuple struct*. It is often used when constructing -//@ a *newtype*, as we do here: `ConcurrentCounter` is essentially just a new name for `Arc>`. However, -//@ is is a locally declared types, so we can give it an inherent implementation and implement traits for it. Since the -//@ field is private, nobody outside this module can even know the type we are wrapping. - -// The derived `Clone` implementation will clone the `Arc`, so all clones will actually talk about the same counter. -#[derive(Clone)] -struct ConcurrentCounter(Arc>); - -impl ConcurrentCounter { - // The constructor just wraps the constructors of `Arc` and `Mutex`. - pub fn new(val: usize) -> Self { - ConcurrentCounter(Arc::new(Mutex::new(val))) /*@*/ - } +// ## Slices +//@ Again, we first have to think about the type we want to give to our sorting function. We may be +//@ inclined to pass it a `Vec`. Of course, sorting does not actually consume the argument, so +//@ we should make that a `&mut Vec`. But there's a problem with that: If we want to implement +//@ some divide-and-conquer sorting algorithm (say, Quicksort), then we will have to *split* our +//@ argument at some point, and operate recursively on the two parts. But we can't split a `Vec`! +//@ We could now extend the function signature to also take some indices, marking the part of the +//@ vector we are supposed to sort, but that's all rather clumsy. Rust offers a nicer solution. - //@ The core operation is, of course, `increment`. The type may be surprising at first: A shared borrow? - //@ How can this be, since `increment` definitely modifies the counter? We already discussed above that `Mutex` is - //@ a way to get around this restriction in Rust. This phenomenon of data that can be mutated through a shared - //@ borrow is called *interior mutability*: We are changing the inner parts of the object, but seen from the outside, - //@ this does not count as "mutation". This stands in contrast to *exterior mutability*, which is the kind of - //@ mutability we saw so far, where one piece of data is replaced by something else of the same type. If you are familiar - //@ with languages like ML, you can compare this to how something of type `ref` permits mutation, even though it is - //@ itself a functional value (more precisely, a location) like all the others. - //@ - //@ Interior mutability breaks the rules of Rust that I outlined earlier: There is aliasing (a shared borrow) and mutation. - //@ The reason that this still works is careful programming of the primitives for interior mutability - in this case, that's - //@ `Mutex`. It has to ensure with dynamic checks, at run-time, that things don't fall apart. In particular, it has to ensure - //@ that the data covered by the mutex can only ever be accessed from inside a critical section. This is where Rust's type - //@ system comes into play: With its discipline of ownership and borrowing, it can enforce such rules. Let's see how this goes. - pub fn increment(&self, by: usize) { - // `lock` on a mutex returns a *guard*, giving access to the data contained in the mutex. - //@ (We will discuss the `unwrap` soon.) `.0` is how we access the first component of a tuple or a struct. - let mut counter = self.0.lock().unwrap(); - //@ The guard is another example of a smart pointer, and it can be used as if it were a pointer to the data protected - //@ by the lock. - *counter = *counter + by; - //@ At the end of the function, `counter` is dropped and the mutex is available again. - //@ This can only happen when full ownership of the guard is given up. In particular, it is impossible for us - //@ to borrow some of its content, release the lock of the mutex, and subsequently access the protected data without holding - //@ the lock. Enforcing the locking discipline is expressible in the Rust type system, so we don't have to worry - //@ about data races *even though* we are mutating shared memory! - //@ - //@ One of the subtle aspects of locking is *poisoning*. If a thread panics while it holds a lock, it could leave the - //@ data-structure in a bad state. The lock is hence considered *poisoned*. Future attempts to `lock` it will fail. - //@ Above, we simply assert via `unwrap` that this will never happen. Alternatively, we could have a look at the poisoned - //@ state and attempt to recover from it. - } +//@ `[T]` is the type of an (unsized) *array*, with elements of type `T`. All this means is that +//@ there's a contiguous region of memory, where a bunch of `T` are stored. How many? We can't +//@ tell! This is an unsized type. Just like for trait objects, this means we can only operate on +//@ pointers to that type, and these pointers will carry the missing information - namely, the +//@ length (they will be *fat pointers*). Such a reference to an array is called a *slice*. As we +//@ will see, a slice can be split. Our function can thus take a mutable slice, and promise to sort +//@ all elements in there. +pub fn sort(data: &mut [T]) { + if data.len() < 2 { return; } - // The function `get` returns the current value of the counter. - pub fn get(&self) -> usize { - let counter = self.0.lock().unwrap(); /*@*/ - *counter /*@*/ + // We decide that the element at 0 is our pivot, and then we move our cursors through the rest + // of the slice, making sure that everything on the left is no larger than the pivot, and + // everything on the right is no smaller. + let mut lpos = 1; + let mut rpos = data.len(); + /* Invariant: pivot is data[0]; everything with index (0,lpos) is <= pivot; + [rpos,len) is >= pivot; lpos < rpos */ + loop { + // **Exercise 14.1**: Complete this Quicksort loop. You can use `swap` on slices to swap + // two elements. Write a test function for `sort`. + unimplemented!() } + + // Once our cursors met, we need to put the pivot in the right place. + data.swap(0, lpos-1); + + // Finally, we split our slice to sort the two halves. The nice part about slices is that + // splitting them is cheap: + //@ They are just a pointer to a start address, and a length. We can thus get two pointers, one + //@ at the beginning and one in the middle, and set the lengths appropriately such that they + //@ don't overlap. This is what `split_at_mut` does. Since the two slices don't overlap, there + //@ is no aliasing and we can have both of them as unique, mutable slices. + let (part1, part2) = data.split_at_mut(lpos); + //@ The index operation can not only be used to address certain elements, it can also be used + //@ for *slicing*: Giving a range of indices, and obtaining an appropriate part of the slice we + //@ started with. Here, we remove the last element from `part1`, which is the pivot. This makes + //@ sure both recursive calls work on strictly smaller slices. + sort(&mut part1[..lpos-1]); /*@*/ + sort(part2); /*@*/ } -// Now our counter is ready for action. -pub fn main() { - let counter = ConcurrentCounter::new(0); +// **Exercise 14.2**: Since `String` implements `PartialEq`, you can now change the function +// `output_lines` in the previous part to call the sort function above. If you did exercise 13.1, +// you will have slightly more work. Make sure you sort by the matched line only, not by filename +// or line number! - // We clone the counter for the first thread, which increments it by 2 every 15ms. - let counter1 = counter.clone(); - let handle1 = thread::spawn(move || { - for _ in 0..10 { - thread::sleep_ms(15); - counter1.increment(2); - } - }); - - // The second thread increments the counter by 3 every 20ms. - let counter2 = counter.clone(); - let handle2 = thread::spawn(move || { - for _ in 0..10 { - thread::sleep_ms(20); - counter2.increment(3); +// Now, we can sort, e.g., an vector of numbers. +fn sort_nums(data: &mut Vec) { + //@ Vectors support slicing, just like slices do. Here, `..` denotes the full range, which + //@ means we want to slice the entire vector. It is then passed to the `sort` function, which + //@ doesn't even know that it is working on data inside a vector. + sort(&mut data[..]); +} + +// ## Arrays +//@ An *array* in Rust is given by the type `[T; n]`, where `n` is some *fixed* number. So, `[f64; +//@ 10]` is an array of 10 floating-point numbers, all one right next to the other in memory. +//@ Arrays are sized, and hence can be used like any other type. But we can also borrow them as +//@ slices, e.g., to sort them. +fn sort_array() { + let mut array_of_data: [f64; 5] = [1.0, 3.4, 12.7, -9.12, 0.1]; + sort(&mut array_of_data); +} + +// ## External Dependencies +//@ This leaves us with just one more piece to complete rgrep: Taking arguments from the command- +//@ line. We could now directly work on [`std::env::args`](https://doc.rust- +//@ lang.org/stable/std/env/fn.args.html) to gain access to those arguments, and this would become +//@ a pretty boring lesson in string manipulation. Instead, I want to use this opportunity to show +//@ how easy it is to benefit from other people's work in your program. +//@ +//@ For sure, we are not the first to equip a Rust program with support for command-line arguments. +//@ Someone must have written a library for the job, right? Indeed, someone has. Rust has a central +//@ repository of published libraries, called [crates.io](https://crates.io/). +//@ It's a bit like [PyPI](https://pypi.python.org/pypi) or the [Ruby Gems](https://rubygems.org/): +//@ Everybody can upload their code, and there's tooling for importing that code into your project. +//@ This tooling is provided by `cargo`, the tool we are already using to build this tutorial. +//@ (`cargo` also has support for *publishing* your crate on crates.io, I refer you to [the +//@ documentation](http://doc.crates.io/crates-io.html) for more details.) +//@ In this case, we are going to use the [`docopt` crate](https://crates.io/crates/docopt), which +//@ creates a parser for command-line arguments based on the usage string. External dependencies +//@ are declared in the `Cargo.toml` file. + +//@ I already prepared that file, but the declaration of the dependency is still commented out. So +//@ please open `Cargo.toml` of your workspace now, and enable the two commented-out lines. Then do +//@ `cargo build`. Cargo will now download the crate from crates.io, compile it, and link it to +//@ your program. In the future, you can do `cargo update` to make it download new versions of +//@ crates you depend on. +//@ Note that crates.io is only the default location for dependencies, you can also give it the URL +//@ of a git repository or some local path. All of this is explained in the +//@ [Cargo Guide](http://doc.crates.io/guide.html). + +// I disabled the following module (using a rather bad hack), because it only compiles if `docopt` +// is linked. Remove the attribute of the `rgrep` module to enable compilation. +#[cfg(feature = "disabled")] +pub mod rgrep { + // Now that `docopt` is linked, we can first add it to the namespace with `extern crate` and + // then import shorter names with `use`. We also import some other pieces that we will need. + extern crate docopt; + use self::docopt::Docopt; + use part13::{run, Options, OutputMode}; + use std::process; + + // The `USAGE` string documents how the program is to be called. It's written in a format that + // `docopt` can parse. + static USAGE: &'static str = " +Usage: rgrep [-c] [-s] ... + +Options: + -c, --count Count number of matching lines (rather than printing them). + -s, --sort Sort the lines before printing. +"; + + // This function extracts the rgrep options from the command-line arguments. + fn get_options() -> Options { + // This parses `argv` and exit the program with an error message if it fails. The code is + // taken from the [`docopt` documentation](http://burntsushi.net/rustdoc/docopt/).
+ //@ The function `and_then` takes a closure from `T` to `Result`, and uses it to + //@ transform a `Result` to a `Result`. This way, we can chain computations + //@ that only happen if the previous one succeeded (and the error type has to stay the + //@ same). In case you know about monads, this style of programming will be familiar to + //@ you. + //@ There's a similar function for `Option`. `unwrap_or_else` is a bit like `unwrap`, but + //@ rather than panicking in case of an `Err`, it calls the closure. + let args = Docopt::new(USAGE).and_then(|d| d.parse()).unwrap_or_else(|e| e.exit()); + // Now we can get all the values out. + let count = args.get_bool("-c"); + let sort = args.get_bool("-s"); + let pattern = args.get_str(""); + let files = args.get_vec(""); + if count && sort { + println!("Setting both '-c' and '-s' at the same time does not make any sense."); + process::exit(1); } - }); - // Now we watch the threads working on the counter. - for _ in 0..50 { - thread::sleep_ms(5); - println!("Current value: {}", counter.get()); + // We need to make the strings owned to construct the `Options` instance. + //@ If you check all the types carefully, you will notice that `pattern` above is of type + //@ `&str`. `str` is the type of a UTF-8 encoded string, that is, a bunch of bytes in + //@ memory (`[u8]`) that are valid according of UTF-8. `str` is unsized. `&str` stores the + //@ address of the character data, and their length. + //@ String literals like "this one" are of type `&'static str`: They point right to the + //@ constant section of the binary, so the reference is valid for the entire program. The + //@ bytes pointed to by `pattern`, on the other hand, are owned by someone else, and we + //@ call `to_string` on it to copy the string data into a buffer on the heap that we own. + let mode = if count { + OutputMode::Count + } else if sort { + OutputMode::SortAndPrint + } else { + OutputMode::Print + }; + Options { + files: files.iter().map(|file| file.to_string()).collect(), + pattern: pattern.to_string(), + output_mode: mode, + } } - // Finally, we wait for all the threads to finish to be sure we can catch the counter's final value. - handle1.join().unwrap(); - handle2.join().unwrap(); - println!("Final value: {}", counter.get()); + // Finally, we can call the `run` function from the previous part on the options extracted using + // `get_options`. Edit `main.rs` to call this function. + // You can now use `cargo run -- ` to call your program, and see the argument + // parser and the threads we wrote previously in action! + pub fn main() { + run(get_options()); /*@*/ + } } -// **Exercise 14.1**: Besides `Mutex`, there's also [`RwLock`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/stable/std/sync/struct.RwLock.html), which -// provides two ways of locking: One that grants only read-only access, to any number of concurrent readers, and another one -// for exclusive write access. (Notice that this is the same pattern we already saw with shared vs. mutable borrows.) Change -// the code above to use `RwLock`, such that multiple calls to `get` can be executed at the same time. -// -// **Exercise 14.2**: Add an operation `compare_and_inc(&self, test: usize, by: usize)` that increments the counter by -// `by` *only if* the current value is `test`. - -//@ ## Sync -//@ In part 12, we talked about types that are marked `Send` and thus can be moved to another thread. However, we did *not* -//@ talk about the question whether a borrow is `Send`. For `&mut T`, the answer is: It is `Send` whenever `T` is send. -//@ `&mut` allows moving values back and forth, it is even possible to [`swap`](http://doc.rust-lang.org/beta/std/mem/fn.swap.html) -//@ the contents of two mutably borrowed values. So in terms of concurrency, sending a mutable borrow is very much like -//@ sending full ownership, in the sense that it can be used to move the object to another thread. -//@ -//@ But what about `&T`, a shared borrow? Without interior mutability, it would always be all-right to send such values. -//@ After all, no mutation can be performed, so there can be as many threads accessing the data as we like. In the -//@ presence of interior mutability though, the story gets more complicated. Rust introduces another marker trait for -//@ this purpose: `Sync`. A type `T` is `Sync` if `&T` is `Send`. Just like `Send`, `Sync` has a default implementation -//@ and is thus automatically implemented for a data-structure *if* all its members implement it. -//@ -//@ Almost all the types we saw so far are `Sync`, with the exception of `Rc`. Remember that a shared borrow is good enough -//@ for cloning, and we don't want other threads to clone our local `Rc`, so it must not be `Sync`. The rule of `Mutex` -//@ is to enforce synchronization, so it should not be entirely surprising that `Mutex` is `Send` *and* `Sync` provided that -//@ `T` is `Send`. -//@ -//@ In the next part, we will learn about a type called `RefCell` that is `Send`, but not `Sync`. -//@ -//@ You may be curious whether there is a type that's `Sync`, but not `Send`. There are indeed rather esoteric examples -//@ of such types, but that's not a topic I want to go into. In case you are curious, there's a -//@ [Rust RFC](https://github.com/rust-lang/rfcs/blob/master/text/0458-send-improvements.md), which contains a type `RcMut` that would be `Sync` and not `Send`. -//@ You may also be interested in [this blog post](https://huonw.github.io/blog/2015/02/some-notes-on-send-and-sync/) on the topic. +// **Exercise 14.3**: Wouldn't it be nice if rgrep supported regular expressions? There's already a +// crate that does all the parsing and matching on regular expression, it's called +// [regex](https://crates.io/crates/regex). Add this crate to the dependencies of your workspace, +// add an option ("-r") to switch the pattern to regular-expression mode, and change `filter_lines` +// to honor this option. The documentation of regex is available from its crates.io site. +// (You won't be able to use the `regex!` macro if you are on the stable or beta channel of Rust. +// But it wouldn't help for our use-case anyway.) -//@ [index](main.html) | [previous](part13.html) | [next](main.html) +//@ [index](main.html) | [previous](part13.html) | [raw source](workspace/src/part14.rs) | +//@ [next](part15.html)